Pink triangles: Antecedents and consequences of perceived workplace discrimination against gay and lesbian employees.
Belle R. Ragins and John M. Cornwell
Abstract:
A model of perceived sexual orientation discrimination was tested in a national sample of 534 gay and lesbian employees. The effects of legislation, organizational policies and practices, and work group composition on perceived sexual orientation discrimination were examined, as well as the attitudinal and organizational outcomes associated with discrimination. Gay employees were more likely to report discrimination when employed in groups that were primarily heterosexual and in organizations that lacked supportive policies and were not covered by protective legislation. Disclosure of sexual orientation at work was related to discrimination and antecedent variables. Perceived discrimination was associated with negative work attitudes and fewer promotions. Organizational policies and practices had the strongest impact on perceived discrimination and were directly related to outcomes.
Belle R. Ragins and John M. Cornwell
Abstract:
A model of perceived sexual orientation discrimination was tested in a national sample of 534 gay and lesbian employees. The effects of legislation, organizational policies and practices, and work group composition on perceived sexual orientation discrimination were examined, as well as the attitudinal and organizational outcomes associated with discrimination. Gay employees were more likely to report discrimination when employed in groups that were primarily heterosexual and in organizations that lacked supportive policies and were not covered by protective legislation. Disclosure of sexual orientation at work was related to discrimination and antecedent variables. Perceived discrimination was associated with negative work attitudes and fewer promotions. Organizational policies and practices had the strongest impact on perceived discrimination and were directly related to outcomes.
Subtle Perceptions of Male Sexual Orientation Influence Occupational Opportunities
Nicholas O. Rule, R. Thora Bjornsdottir, Konstantin O. Tskhay, and Nalini Ambady
Abstract:
Theories linking the literatures on stereotyping and human resource management have proposed that individuals may enjoy greater success obtaining jobs congruent with stereotypes about their social categories or traits. Here, we explored such effects for a detectable, but not obvious, social group distinction: male sexual orientation. Bridging previous work on prejudice and occupational success with
that on social perception, we found that perceivers rated gay and straight men as more suited to professions consistent with stereotypes about their groups (nurses, pediatricians, and English teachers vs. engineers, managers, surgeons, and math teachers) from mere photos of their faces. Notably, distinct evaluations of the gay and straight men emerged based on perceptions of their faces with no explicit
indication of sexual orientation. Neither perceivers’ expertise with hiring decisions nor diagnostic information about the targets eliminated these biases, but encouraging fair decisions did contribute to partly ameliorating the differences. Mediation analysis further showed that perceptions of the targets’ sexual orientations and facial affect accounted for these effects. Individuals may therefore infer characteristics about individuals’ group memberships from their faces and use this information in a way that meaningfully influences evaluations of their suitability for particular jobs.
Nicholas O. Rule, R. Thora Bjornsdottir, Konstantin O. Tskhay, and Nalini Ambady
Abstract:
Theories linking the literatures on stereotyping and human resource management have proposed that individuals may enjoy greater success obtaining jobs congruent with stereotypes about their social categories or traits. Here, we explored such effects for a detectable, but not obvious, social group distinction: male sexual orientation. Bridging previous work on prejudice and occupational success with
that on social perception, we found that perceivers rated gay and straight men as more suited to professions consistent with stereotypes about their groups (nurses, pediatricians, and English teachers vs. engineers, managers, surgeons, and math teachers) from mere photos of their faces. Notably, distinct evaluations of the gay and straight men emerged based on perceptions of their faces with no explicit
indication of sexual orientation. Neither perceivers’ expertise with hiring decisions nor diagnostic information about the targets eliminated these biases, but encouraging fair decisions did contribute to partly ameliorating the differences. Mediation analysis further showed that perceptions of the targets’ sexual orientations and facial affect accounted for these effects. Individuals may therefore infer characteristics about individuals’ group memberships from their faces and use this information in a way that meaningfully influences evaluations of their suitability for particular jobs.
The importance of being “me”: The relation between authentic identity expression and transgender employees’ work-related attitudes and experiences.
Larry R. Martinez, Katina B. Sawyer, Christian N. Thoroughgood, Enrica N. Ruggs, and Nicholas A. Smith
Abstract:
The present research examined the relation between authentic identity expression and transgender employees’ work-related attitudes and experiences. Drawing on Kernis’ (2003) theoretical conceptualization of authenticity and expanding on current workplace identity management research, we predicted that employees who had taken steps to reduce the discrepancy between their inner gender identities and their outward manifestations of gender would report more positive job attitudes and workplace experiences, in part because the reduction of this discrepancy is related to greater feelings of authenticity. In Study 1, we found that the extent to which one has transitioned was related to higher job satisfaction and perceived person-organization (P-O) fit and lower perceived discrimination. In Study 2, we replicate and extend these results by showing that the extent to which employees felt that others at work perceived them in a manner consistent with how they perceived themselves (relational authenticity) mediated the relations between extent of transition and all 3 of these outcomes. However, perceptions of alignment between one’s felt and expressed identity (action authenticity) only mediated this link for job satisfaction. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our results, as well as avenues for future research on authenticity in the workplace.
Larry R. Martinez, Katina B. Sawyer, Christian N. Thoroughgood, Enrica N. Ruggs, and Nicholas A. Smith
Abstract:
The present research examined the relation between authentic identity expression and transgender employees’ work-related attitudes and experiences. Drawing on Kernis’ (2003) theoretical conceptualization of authenticity and expanding on current workplace identity management research, we predicted that employees who had taken steps to reduce the discrepancy between their inner gender identities and their outward manifestations of gender would report more positive job attitudes and workplace experiences, in part because the reduction of this discrepancy is related to greater feelings of authenticity. In Study 1, we found that the extent to which one has transitioned was related to higher job satisfaction and perceived person-organization (P-O) fit and lower perceived discrimination. In Study 2, we replicate and extend these results by showing that the extent to which employees felt that others at work perceived them in a manner consistent with how they perceived themselves (relational authenticity) mediated the relations between extent of transition and all 3 of these outcomes. However, perceptions of alignment between one’s felt and expressed identity (action authenticity) only mediated this link for job satisfaction. We discuss the theoretical and practical implications of our results, as well as avenues for future research on authenticity in the workplace.
Affective antecedents and consequences of revealing and concealing a lesbian, gay, or bisexual identity.
Jonathan J. Mohr, Hannah M. Markell, Eden B. King, Kristen P. Jones, Chad I. Peddie, and Mathew S. Kendra
Abstract:
This study examined affect as it relates to the identity management (IM) experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) workers. We integrate IM theories and evidence (Chaudoir & Fisher, 2010; Pachankis, 2007) within the framework of affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) to predict relationships among mood, identity management, and emotion at work. LGB participants rated aspects of positive and negative affect each work morning and immediately following IM situations at work over 3 weeks, making it possible to examine within-person changes and next-day consequences of IM. Our results provided little support for the notion that LGB workers’ IM behaviors are driven by affect. However, there do appear to be affective consequences of IM behaviors. After concealment, participants experienced diminished positive affect and increased negative affect; in contrast, revealing was associated with increased positive affect and diminished negative affect. Additionally, these immediate affective consequences of identity management continued into the following day for some facets of affect. We examine these findings as they relate to the identity management and affect literatures, thereby building new insights into their intersections.
Jonathan J. Mohr, Hannah M. Markell, Eden B. King, Kristen P. Jones, Chad I. Peddie, and Mathew S. Kendra
Abstract:
This study examined affect as it relates to the identity management (IM) experiences of lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) workers. We integrate IM theories and evidence (Chaudoir & Fisher, 2010; Pachankis, 2007) within the framework of affective events theory (Weiss & Cropanzano, 1996) to predict relationships among mood, identity management, and emotion at work. LGB participants rated aspects of positive and negative affect each work morning and immediately following IM situations at work over 3 weeks, making it possible to examine within-person changes and next-day consequences of IM. Our results provided little support for the notion that LGB workers’ IM behaviors are driven by affect. However, there do appear to be affective consequences of IM behaviors. After concealment, participants experienced diminished positive affect and increased negative affect; in contrast, revealing was associated with increased positive affect and diminished negative affect. Additionally, these immediate affective consequences of identity management continued into the following day for some facets of affect. We examine these findings as they relate to the identity management and affect literatures, thereby building new insights into their intersections.
Because You’re Worth the Risks: Acts of Oppositional Courage as Symbolic Messages of Relational Value to Transgender Employees
Christian N. Thoroughgood, Katina B. Sawyer, and Jennica R. Webster
Abstract:
Achieving greater social equity in organizations often depends on majority members taking risks to challenge the status quo on behalf of their colleagues with stigmatized identities. But, how do employees enact courageous behavior in this regard, and what are the social implications of these courageous acts on stigmatized group members who witness them at work? To begin examining these questions, we
conducted 4 studies using qualitative and quantitative data collected from 428 transgender employees. Drawing on the core principles of sociometer theory, we argue that these acts of oppositional courage serve an important symbolic function in the eyes of transgender employees in that they convey a powerful, public message regarding their value as organizational members. This message of value likely
has key implications for their organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) and, in turn, their job attitudes and wellbeing. In Study 1, we employed a critical incident technique to generate qualitative accounts of participants’ exposure to these courageous acts in support of their trans identities at work. In Study 2, we experimentally manipulated trans participants’ exposure to these behaviors to examine their impact on
individuals’ anticipated levels of OBSE. In Study 3, we developed a measure of oppositional courage and conducted tests of its construct validity. In Study 4, using a time-lagged survey design, we found that trans employees’ perceptions of oppositional courage were positively related to their job satisfaction and negatively related to their emotional exhaustion via their OBSE. Yet, these indirect effects were moderated by the centrality of participants’ trans identity.
Christian N. Thoroughgood, Katina B. Sawyer, and Jennica R. Webster
Abstract:
Achieving greater social equity in organizations often depends on majority members taking risks to challenge the status quo on behalf of their colleagues with stigmatized identities. But, how do employees enact courageous behavior in this regard, and what are the social implications of these courageous acts on stigmatized group members who witness them at work? To begin examining these questions, we
conducted 4 studies using qualitative and quantitative data collected from 428 transgender employees. Drawing on the core principles of sociometer theory, we argue that these acts of oppositional courage serve an important symbolic function in the eyes of transgender employees in that they convey a powerful, public message regarding their value as organizational members. This message of value likely
has key implications for their organization-based self-esteem (OBSE) and, in turn, their job attitudes and wellbeing. In Study 1, we employed a critical incident technique to generate qualitative accounts of participants’ exposure to these courageous acts in support of their trans identities at work. In Study 2, we experimentally manipulated trans participants’ exposure to these behaviors to examine their impact on
individuals’ anticipated levels of OBSE. In Study 3, we developed a measure of oppositional courage and conducted tests of its construct validity. In Study 4, using a time-lagged survey design, we found that trans employees’ perceptions of oppositional courage were positively related to their job satisfaction and negatively related to their emotional exhaustion via their OBSE. Yet, these indirect effects were moderated by the centrality of participants’ trans identity.